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Description: Aluminum or aluminium is a silver-white metal, very light in weight (less than three times as dense as water), yet relatively strong. Because aluminum is ductile, it can be drawn into wires or pressed into sheets or foil. It is the most abundant metallic element, and the third most abundant of all elements in the Earth's crust, making up 8% of the crust by weight. Only silicon and oxygen are more plentiful. Bauxite ore is the main source of aluminum; bauxite is processed into alumina before being processed into metallic applications.

Uses: transportation; containers and packaging; building and construction; electrical; machinery and equipment; structural airframe material for aircraft; military and combat vehicles

US Imports: 7.2 million mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Bauxite: Jamaica 51%, Brazil 23%, Guinea 10%, Guyana 7%, other 9%; Alumina: Brazil 39%, Australia 31%, Jamaica 9%, Canada 5%, other 16%

World Resources: Global resources of bauxite are estimated to be between 55 to 75 billion tons and are sufficient to meet world demand for metal well into the future.

Description: Antimony is a silvery-gray, brittle semi-metal. It rarely occurs in nature as a native element, but is found in a number of different minerals, the most important of which is stibnite. Antimony is often called a semi-metal because in pure form it is not shiny and malleable like true metals.

Uses: automotive batteries (lead-acid); ceramics and glass; flame retardants (flameproof fabrics); automotive brake pads (additive to adjust co-efficient of friction); cable sheathing

US Imports: 24,340 mt (2019 est)

Import Sources (2015–18): Metal: China 52%, India 20%, Vietnam 8%, United Kingdom 6%, other 14%; Ore and concentrate: Italy 76%, China 17%, Mexico 4%, Bosnia and Herzegovina 1%, other 2%; Oxide: China 64%, Belgium 10%, Thailand 10%, Bolivia 7%, other 9%

World Resources: Principal identified world resources are in Australia, Bolivia, China, Mexico, Russia, South Africa, and Tajikistan.

Substitutions: Selected organic compounds and hydrated aluminum oxide are substitutes as flame retardants. Chromium, tin, titanium, zinc, and zirconium compounds substitute for antimony chemicals in enamels, paint, and pigments. Combinations of calcium, copper, selenium, sulfur, and tin are substitutes for alloys in lead-acid batteries.

Description: Beryllium is the 44th most abundant element in the earth’s crust. Beryllium is a silvery-white, hard and brittle, extremely light metal, which is highly toxic. The mechanical and thermal properties relating to its low density are superior to those of all other materials, making it very useful for structural and electronic applications. Beryllium metal can be vacuum cast as an ingot or hot pressed as a powder.

Uses: battery contacts and electronic connectors; windows for X-ray tubes; aerospace castings; high-definition and cable television; underwater fiber-optic cable systems; high-density circuits for high-speed computers and automotive ignition systems; pacemakers and other medical devices

US Imports: 45 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Kazakhstan, 39%; Japan, 15%; Brazil, 13%; United Kingdom, 5%; and other, 28%

World Resources: The world’s identified resources of beryllium have been estimated to be more than 100,000 tons. About 60% of these resources are in the US; by size, the Spor Mountain area in Utah, the McCullough Butte area in Nevada, the Black Hills area in South Dakota, the Sierra Blanca area in Texas, the Seward Peninsula in Alaska, and the Gold Hill area in Utah account for most of the total.

Substitutes: Because the cost of beryllium is high compared with that of other materials, it is used in applications in which its properties are crucial. In some applications, certain metal matrix or organic composites, high-strength grades of aluminum, pyrolytic graphite, silicon carbide, steel, or titanium may be substituted for beryllium metal or beryllium composites. Copper alloys containing nickel and silicon, tin, titanium, or other alloying elements or phosphor bronze alloys (copper-tin-phosphorus) may be substituted for beryllium-copper alloys, but these substitutions can result in substantially reduced performance. Aluminum nitride or boron nitride may be substituted for beryllium oxide.

Description: Bismuth is a silvery-white metallic element with a pinkish tint. Bismuth was long thought to be a variety of lead or tin, which it resembles, until the chemist Claude Geoffroy showed in 1753 that it is a separate element.

Uses: cosmetics (bismuth oxychloride); pharmaceuticals (compounds used in over-the-counter to treat stomach illness, burns, intestinal disorders, and stomach ulcers); metal alloys; solder; thermoelectric devices (bismuth telluride); fireworks; plastics with opacity to X-rays (implanted medical devices); ammunition (replacement for lead shot used for hunting, "less-lethal" riot projectile)

US Imports: 2,400 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): China, 76%; Belgium, 6%; Mexico, 6%; Republic of Korea, 5%; and other, 7%

World Resources: World reserves of bismuth are usually estimated based on the bismuth content of lead resources because bismuth production is most often a byproduct of processing lead ores. In China and Vietnam, bismuth production is a byproduct or coproduct of tungsten and other metal ore processing.

Substitutes: Bismuth compounds can be replaced in pharmaceutical applications by alumina, antibiotics, and magnesia. Titanium dioxide-coated mica flakes and fish-scale extracts are substitutes in pigment uses. Indium can replace bismuth in low-temperature solders. Resins can replace bismuth alloys for holding metal shapes during machining, and glycerine-filled glass bulbs can replace bismuth alloys in triggering devices for fire sprinklers. Free machining alloys can contain lead, selenium, or tellurium as a replacement for bismuth.

Note(s): Bismuth, at an estimated 8 parts per billion by weight, ranks 69th in elemental abundance in the Earth’s crust and is about twice as abundant as gold. Bismuth minerals rarely occur in sufficient quantities to be mined as principal products; a mine in China is the only one where bismuth is the primary product.

Description: Cadmium is a very soft, silvery-white metallic element; it is so soft that it can be cut with a knife. Cadmium has many chemical similarities to zinc, but is less reactive with acids than is zinc. Metallic cadmium is rarely used industrially in pure form.

Uses: nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries; pigments (yellow, orange, and red); plating (provides better rust resistance than zinc, especially in salt water environments)

US Imports: 440 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): China, 25%; Australia, 22%; Canada, 21%; Peru, 10%; and other, 22%.

World Resources: Most of the world’s primary cadmium metal is produced in Asia, and leading global producers are China, the Republic of Korea, and Japan. A smaller amount of secondary cadmium metal is recovered from recycling NiCd batteries.

Substitutes: Lithium-ion and nickel-metal hydride batteries can replace NiCd batteries in many applications. Except where the surface characteristics of a coating are critical (for example, fasteners for aircraft), coatings of zinc, zinc-nickel, or vapor-deposited aluminum can be substituted for cadmium in many plating applications. Cerium sulfide is used as a replacement for cadmium pigments, mostly in plastics. Barium-zinc or calcium-zinc stabilizers can replace barium-cadmium stabilizers in flexible PVC applications. Amorphous silicon and copper-indium-gallium-selenide photovoltaic cells compete with cadmium telluride in the thin-film solar-cell market.

Description: Cesium is a very soft, ductile, alkali metal that is liquid at 28.4° C. It is the most electropositive and reactive of the alkali metals and forms compounds with a variety of anions and alloys with the other alkali metals and with gold. The metal ignites spontaneously in the presence of air and reacts explosively in water. Because of this reactivity, cesium is classed as a hazardous material and must be stored and transported in isolation from possible reactants.

Uses: The current application that likely requires the most cesium is as a specialty high-density component in drilling mud used for petroleum exploration. Cesium also has a wide-spectrum of photoemissive properties whereby electromagnetic radiation, which includes visible light and nearby regions of the radiation spectrum, are converted to electrical current. Thus, cesium is used in television image devices, night-vision equipment, solar photovoltaic cells, and other types of photoelectric cells. Perhaps one of its best known applications is its use in the super-accurate atomic cesium clock that is used as a standard for the world’s timekeeping systems. It is also used in the chemical process industry, primarily as an ingredient of metal-ion catalysts; in medical applications; in the removal of sulfur from crude oil in petroleum refining; and as an ingredient in specialty glasses used in fiber optics and night-vision devices.

US imports: Only a few thousand kilograms of cesium are consumed in the US every year. The US is 100% import reliant for its cesium needs.

Import Sources (2014–17): No reliable data has been available to determine the source of cesium ore imported by the US since 1988. Previously, Canada was thought to be the primary supplier of cesium ore.

World Resources: US and world resources of cesium have not been estimated. It is a relatively uncommon element that can be mined in only a few places in the world. The world’s largest deposit of pollucite, which is the principal ore of cesium, is in a zoned pegmatite at Bernic Lake, Canada, and accounts for more than two-thirds of world reserves. Other reserves are in Namibia and Zambia, although numerous low-grade occurrences are known to exist elsewhere. There are cesium occurrences in pegmatite in Afghanistan, China, and Italy, in hydrous opal in Tibet, and in brines in Chile.

Substitutes: Cesium and rubidium can be used interchangeably in many applications because they have similar physical properties and atomic radii. Cesium, however, is more electropositive than rubidium, making it a preferred material for some applications. However, rubidium is mined from similar deposits, in relatively smaller quantities, as a byproduct of cesium production in pegmatites and as a byproduct of lithium production from lepidolite (hard-rock) mining and processing, making it no more readily available than cesium.

Note(s): During 2018, projects that were primarily aimed at developing lithium resources with cesium content were at various stages of development, including eight subprojects at the King Col project in Australia, the Jubilee Lake lithium prospect in Canada, the Soris lithium project in Namibia, and the Winnipeg River pegmatite field in Canada. The status of these projects ranged from early feasibility studies to active exploration and drilling. No production has been reported at any sites.

Description: Chromium is a steely-gray, lustrous, hard and brittle metal that takes a high polish, resists tarnishing, and has a high melting point. Chromium is produced from chromite ore. About 80% of world production of chromite ore comes from India, Kazakhstan, and South Africa.

Uses: component in nickel super-alloys for land based turbines and jet engines; component in high-speed tool steel; surface coatings; catalysts for processing hydrocarbons; refractory materials; resistance heating wires

US Imports: 520,000 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Chromite (mineral): South Africa, 99%; and Canada, 1%. Chromium containing scrap: Canada, 49%; Mexico, 43%; and other, 8%. Chromium (primary metal): South Africa, 34%; Kazakhstan, 9%; Russia, 8%; and other, 49%. Total imports: South Africa, 38%; Kazakhstan, 7%; Russia, 6%; and other, 49%.

World Resources: World resources are greater than 12 billion tons of shipping-grade chromite, sufficient to meet conceivable demand for centuries. The world’s chromium resources are heavily geographically concentrated (95%) in Kazakhstan and southern Africa; US chromium resources are mostly in the Stillwater Complex in Montana.

Substitutes: Chromium has no substitute in stainless steel, the leading end use, or in superalloys, the major strategic end use. Chromium-containing scrap can substitute for ferrochromium in some metallurgical uses.

Description: Cobalt is a bluish-gray, shiny, brittle metallic element. It has magnetic properties like iron. Cobalt-nickel alloys have good temperature stability and corrosion and wear resistance and are used in high temperature applications. The cobalt resources identified in the world are mostly found in copper or nickel mines in Australia, Canada, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DROC), Russia, and Zambia. In the US, cobalt resources are in mostly found in Minnesota. Most of the cobalt used in the US is imported.

Uses: batteries; component in nickel superalloys for high temperature sections of jet engines and industrial gas turbines; pigments; medical implants

US Imports: 13,600 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Cobalt contained in metal, oxide, and salts: Norway, 17%; Japan, 13%; China, 11%; Canada, 11%; and other, 48%.

World Resources: Identified world terrestrial cobalt resources are about 25 million tons. The vast majority of these resources are in sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits in DROC and Zambia; nickel-bearing laterite deposits in Australia and nearby island countries, and in Cuba; and magmatic nickel-copper sulfide deposits hosted in mafic and ultramafic rocks in Australia, Canada, Russia, and the US. The DROC continued to be the world’s leading source of mined cobalt, supplying more than one-half of world cobalt mine production. China was the world’s leading producer of refined cobalt and a leading supplier of cobalt imports to the US. Much of China’s production comes from ore and partially refined cobalt imported from DROC; scrap and stocks of cobalt materials also contributed to China’s supply.

Substitutes: In some applications, substitution for cobalt would result in a loss in product performance. Potential substitutes include barium or strontium ferrites, neodymium-iron-boron, or nickel-iron alloys in magnets; cerium, iron, lead, manganese, or vanadium in paints; cobalt-iron-copper or iron-copper in diamond tools; copper-iron-manganese for curing unsaturated polyester resins; iron, iron-cobalt-nickel, nickel, cermets, or ceramics in cutting and wear resistant materials; iron-phosphorous, manganese, nickel-cobalt-aluminum, or nickel-cobalt-manganese in lithium-ion batteries; nickel-based alloys or ceramics in jet engines; nickel in petroleum catalysts; and rhodium in hydroformylation catalysts.

Description: Copper is a mineral and an element. As a mineral, natural copper (also called native copper) is relatively rare. Copper is usually found in nature in association with sulfur. Copper is one of the oldest metals ever used. Because of its properties of high ductility, malleability, conductivity, and resistance to corrosion, copper has become a major industrial metal, ranking third after iron and aluminum in terms of quantities consumed.

Uses: electric wire (motors, electromagnets, integrated circuits); plumbing (tubing, fittings); architectural roofing and features on buildings; alloys (brass, bronze)

US Imports: 685,000 mt (2019 est.)

US Import Sources (2015–18): Copper content of blister and anodes: South Africa, 61%; Finland, 29%; Malaysia, 8%; and other, 2%; Copper content of ore and concentrates: Mexico, 99%; and other, 1%; Copper content of scrap: Canada, 55%; Mexico, 33%; and other, 12%; Refined copper: Chile, 56%; Canada, 26%; Mexico, 11%; and other, 7%; Refined copper accounted for 85% of unmanufactured copper imports.

World Resources: A 2014 US Geological Survey (USGS) global assessment of copper deposits indicated that identified resources contained about 2.1 billion tons of copper (porphyry deposits accounted for 1.8 billion tons of those resources), and undiscovered resources contained an estimated 3.5 billion tons. A 1998 USGS assessment estimated that 550 million tons of copper were contained in identified and undiscovered resources in the US.

Substitutes: Aluminum substitutes for copper in power cable, electrical equipment, automobile radiators, and cooling and refrigeration tubes. Titanium and steel are used in heat exchangers. Optical fiber substitutes for copper in telecommunications applications, and plastics substitute for copper in water pipe, drain pipe, and plumbing fixtures.   

Description: Gallium is a metallic element that does not easily combine with other elements or ions to form ore minerals. It is, however, found as a trace element in a number of minerals and ores, the most important of which is bauxite (aluminum ore). In fact, gallium is a byproduct of alumina production. Gallium is not produced in the US, and demand is satisfied by imports. More than 95% of gallium consumed in the US is in the form of gallium arsenide.

Uses: integrated circuits (cell phones, especially smart phones, wireless internet); optoelectronic devices (laser diodes, LEDs, photo-detectors, and solar cells); specialty alloys

US Imports: 343 mt (2019 est.). The US is 100% import reliant for its gallium needs.

US Import Sources (2015–18): China, 50%; United Kingdom, 18%; Germany, 10%; Ukraine, 9%; and other, 13%.

World Resources: Globally, primary gallium is recovered as a byproduct of processing bauxite and zinc ores. Gallium contained in world resources of bauxite is estimated to exceed 1 million tons, and a considerable quantity could be contained in world zinc resources. However, less than 10% of the gallium in bauxite and zinc resources is potentially recoverable.

Substitutes: Liquid crystals made from organic compounds are used in visual displays as substitutes for LEDs. Silicon-based complementary metal-oxide semiconductor power amplifiers compete with GaAs power amplifiers in midtier 3G cellular handsets. Indium phosphide components can be substituted for GaAs-based infrared laser diodes in some specific-wavelength applications, and helium-neon lasers compete with GaAs in visible laser diode applications. Silicon is the principal competitor with GaAs in solar-cell applications. GaAs-based ICs are used in many defense-related applications because of their unique properties, and no effective substitutes exist for GaAs in these applications. GaAs in heterojunction bipolar transistors is being replaced in some applications by silicon-germanium.

Description: Hafnium metal is produced when it is separated from zircon, a zirconium silicate mineral that is usually 98% zirconium and 2% hafnium. Hafnium is a metallic element used in a number of industrial applications because of its resistance to corrosion and high temperatures.

Uses: control rods on nuclear reactors (primary use); nickel superalloys and high temperature alloys; integrated circuit production for features at 45mm and smaller; electrodes for plasma arc cutting

US Imports: 30 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Hafnium, unwrought: Germany, 45%; France, 29%; China, 15%; United Kingdom, 11%; and other, <1%.

World Resources: World resources of hafnium are associated with those of zircon and baddeleyite. Quantitative estimates of hafnium resources are not available.

Substitutes: Silver-cadmium-indium control rods are used in lieu of hafnium at numerous nuclear power plants. Zirconium can be used interchangeably with hafnium in certain superalloys.

Description: Indium is a soft, malleable, silvery-white metallic element; it is produced mainly from residues generated during zinc ore processing.

Uses: LCD displays; organic LEDs; fiber-optics; solder and alloys; infrared imaging; communications

US Imports: 110 mt (2019 est.). The US is 100% import reliant for its indium needs.

Import Sources (2015–18): China, 36%; Canada, 22%; Republic of Korea, 11%; Taiwan, 7%; and other, 24%.

World Resources: Indium is most commonly recovered from the zinc-sulfide ore mineral sphalerite. The indium content of zinc deposits from which it is recovered ranges from less than 1 part per million to 100 parts per million.

Substitutes: Antimony tin oxide coatings have been developed as an alternative to indium tin oxide (ITO) coatings in LCDs and have been successfully annealed to LCD glass; carbon nanotube coatings have been developed as an alternative to ITO coatings in flexible displays, solar cells, and touch screens; PEDOT [poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene)] has also been developed as a substitute for ITO in flexible displays and organic light-emitting diodes; and silver nanowires have been explored as a substitute for ITO in touch screens. Graphene has been developed to replace ITO electrodes in solar cells and also has been explored as a replacement for ITO in flexible touch screens. Researchers have developed a more adhesive zinc oxide nanopowder to replace ITO in LCDs. Gallium arsenide can substitute for indium phosphide in solar cells and in many semiconductor applications. Hafnium can replace indium in nuclear reactor control rod alloys.

Description: Lead is a very corrosion-resistant, dense, ductile, and malleable blue-gray metal that has been used for at least 5,000 years. The most significant lead mineral is galena (lead sulfide).

Uses: batteries; cable sheeting; solder; shielding (X-ray machines); ammunition

US Imports: 520,000 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2013–16): Refined metal: Canada, 44%; Mexico, 18%; Republic of Korea, 17%; India, 5%; and other, 16%.

World Resources: Identified world lead resources total more than 2 billion tons. In recent years, significant lead resources have been identified in association with zinc and (or) silver or copper deposits in Australia, China, Ireland, Mexico, Peru, Portugal, Russia, and the US (Alaska).

Substitutes: Substitution by plastics has reduced the use of lead in cable covering and cans. Tin has replaced lead in solder for potable water systems. The electronics industry has moved toward lead-free solders and flat-panel displays that do not require lead shielding. Steel and zinc are common substitutes for lead in wheel weights.

Description: Lithium is a metallic element widely distributed in the earth's crust at low concentrations. Spodumene, petalite, and lepidolite are important mineral sources of lithium. Subsurface brines are the dominant raw material for lithium carbonate production worldwide because of lower production costs as compared with the costs for hard rock ores.

Uses: enamels; glass; ceramics; air purification; lithium ion-batteries; focal lenses for telescopes

US Imports: 2,500 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Argentina, 53%; Chile, 40%; China, 3%; and other, 4%.

World Resources: Owing to continuing exploration, identified lithium resources have increased substantially worldwide and total about 80 million tons. Lithium resources in the United States—from continental brines, geothermal brines, hectorite, oilfield brines, and pegmatites—are 6.8 million tons. Lithium resources in other countries have been revised to 73 million tons. Lithium resources, in descending order, are: Bolivia, 21 million tons; Argentina, 17 million tons; Chile, 9 million tons; Australia, 6.3 million tons; China, 4.5 million tons; Congo (Kinshasa), 3 million tons; Germany, 2.5 million tons; Canada and Mexico, 1.7 million tons each; Czechia, 1.3 million tons; Mali, Russia, and Serbia, 1 million tons each; Zimbabwe, 540,000 tons; Brazil, 400,000 tons; Spain, 300,000 tons; Portugal, 250,000 tons; Peru, 130,000 tons; Austria, Finland and Kazakhstan, 50,000 tons each; and Namibia, 9,000 tons.

Substitutes: Substitution for lithium compounds is possible in batteries, ceramics, greases, and manufactured glass. Examples are calcium, magnesium, mercury, and zinc as anode material in primary batteries; calcium and aluminum soaps as substitutes for stearates in greases; and sodic and potassic fluxes in ceramics and glass manufacture.

Description: Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element in the Earth’s crust, representing about 2% of its total mass; it belongs to the alkaline earth metal series. The metal is silvery white and is prized for its lightness and strength in alloys. Magnesium can be extracted from the minerals dolomite and carnallite, but it is most often obtained from seawater or well and lake brines.

Uses: refractory material in furnace linings for steel, iron, metals, glass and cement production; used in agricultural, chemical, and construction industries

US Imports: 55,000 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Israel, 25%; Canada, 24%; Mexico, 10%; United Kingdom, 10%; and other, 31%.

World Resources: Resources from which magnesium may be recovered range from large to virtually unlimited and are globally widespread. Resources of dolomite, serpentine, and magnesium-bearing evaporite minerals are enormous. Magnesium-bearing brines are estimated to constitute a resource in the billions of tons, and magnesium could be recovered from seawater along world coastlines.

Substitutes: Aluminum and zinc may substitute for magnesium in castings and wrought products. The relatively light weight of magnesium is an advantage over aluminum and zinc in castings and wrought products in most applications; however, its high cost is a disadvantage relative to these substitutes. For iron and steel desulfurization, calcium carbide may be used instead of magnesium. Magnesium is preferred to calcium carbide for desulfurization of iron and steel because calcium carbide produces acetylene in the presence of water.

Description: Manganese is a very brittle but hard metallic element. Pyrolusite (manganese dioxide (MnO₂) is the main ore mineral for manganese. Manganese is essential to iron and steel production by virtue of its sulfur-fixing, deoxidizing, and alloying properties.

Uses: steelmaking; aluminum alloy production; additive in unleaded gasoline; glass making and coloring; batteries and dry cells; alloys for chemical processing applications; alloys for high temperature bolts and fasteners

US Imports: Manganese ore 340,000 mt; Ferromanganese 370,000; Silicomanganese 370,000 mt (2019 est.). The US is 100% import reliant for its manganese needs.

Import Sources (2015–18): Manganese ore: Gabon, 70%; South Africa, 17%; Australia, 6%; Mexico, 5%; and other, 2%; Ferromanganese: South Africa, 27%; Australia, 19%; Norway, 16%; Republic of Korea, 13%; and other, 25%; Silicomanganese: Georgia, 27%; South Africa, 24%; Australia, 20%; Mexico, 8%; and other, 21%.

World Resources: Land-based manganese resources are large but irregularly distributed. South Africa accounts for about 74% of the world’s identified manganese resources, and Ukraine accounts for about 10%. Those in the US are very low grade and have potentially high extraction costs.

Substitutes: Manganese has no satisfactory substitute in its major applications.

Description: Mercury is the only common metal that is liquid at room temperature. It occurs either as native metal or in cinnabar, corderoite, livingstonite, and other minerals. Mercury has uniform volumetric thermal expansion, good electrical conductivity, and easily forms amalgams with almost all common metals except iron.

Uses: munition fuzes; missile and space guidance system gyroscopes; dental equipment; electric lighting; infrared detection

US Imports: 10 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Canada, 39%; France, 32%; Switzerland, 13%; China, 8%; and other, 8%.

World Resources: China, Kyrgyzstan, Mexico, Peru, Russia, Slovenia, Spain, and Ukraine have most of the world’s estimated 600,000 tons of mercury resources. Mexico reclaims mercury from Spanish colonial silver-mining waste. In Spain, once a leading producer of mercury, mining at its centuries-old Almaden Mine stopped in 2003. In the US, there are mercury occurrences in Alaska, Arkansas, California, Nevada, and Texas; however, mercury has not been mined as a principal mineral commodity since 1992. The declining consumption of mercury, except for small-scale gold mining, indicates that these resources are sufficient for centuries of use.

Substitutes: Ceramic composites substitute for the dark-gray mercury-containing dental amalgam. “Galistan,” an alloy of gallium, indium, and tin, replaces the mercury used in traditional mercury thermometers, and digital thermometers have replaced traditional thermometers. At chloralkali plants around the world, mercury-cell technology is being replaced by newer diaphragm and membrane cell technology. LEDs that contain indium substitute for mercury-containing fluorescent lamps. Lithium, nickel-cadmium, and zinc-air batteries replace mercury-zinc batteries in the US; indium compounds substitute for mercury in alkaline batteries; and organic compounds have been substituted for mercury fungicides in latex paint.

Description: Molybdenum is a refractory metallic element used principally as an alloying agent in steel, cast iron, and superalloys to enhance hardenability, strength, toughness, and wear and corrosion resistance. The mineral molybdenite (molybdenum sulfide) is an important source of molybdenum.

Uses: component in tool and alloy steels; component in nickel superalloys for high temperature sections of jet engines; lubricant; colorant; nickel superalloys for high temperature sections of turbine engines

US Imports: 37,000 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Molybdenum ores and concentrates: Peru, 53%; Chile, 27%; Canada, 11%; Mexico, 8%; and other, 1%.

World Resources: Global molybdenum production in 2019 decreased slightly compared with 2018. In descending order of production, China, Chile, the United States, Peru, and Mexico provided more than 90% of total global production. Identified resources of molybdenum in the US are about 5.4 million tons, and in the rest of the world, about 20 million tons. Molybdenum occurs as the principal metal sulfide in large low-grade porphyry molybdenum deposits and as an associated metal sulfide in low-grade porphyry copper deposits. Resources of molybdenum are adequate to supply world needs for the foreseeable future.

Substitutes: There is little substitution for molybdenum in its major application in steels and cast irons. Potential substitutes include boron, chromium, niobium (columbium), and vanadium in alloy steels; tungsten in tool steels; graphite, tantalum, and tungsten for refractory materials in high-temperature electric furnaces; and cadmium-red, chrome-orange, and organic-orange pigments for molybdenum orange.

Description: Nickel is a silvery metallic element. Most of the nickel mined comes from two types of deposits: laterites where the principal minerals are nickeliferous limonite (hydrated iron oxide) and garnierite (hydrous nickel silicate), or magmatic sulfide deposits where the principal mineral is pentlandite (iron nickel sulfide).

Uses: land based turbines; turbines for jet aircraft engines; turbines for large-scale power generation; liquid gas storage; high speed steels

US Imports: 120,000 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Canada, 41%; Norway, 11%; Australia, 8%; Finland, 8%; and other, 32%.

World Resources: Identified land-based resources averaging 1% nickel or greater contain at least 130 million tons of nickel, with about 60% in laterites and 40% in sulfide deposits. Extensive nickel resources also are found in manganese crusts and nodules on the ocean floor. The decline in discovery of new sulfide deposits in traditional mining districts has led to exploration in more challenging locations such as east-central Africa and the subarctic.

Substitutes: Low-nickel, duplex, or ultrahigh-chromium stainless steels are being substituted for austenitic grades in construction. Nickel-free specialty steels are sometimes used in place of stainless steel in the power-generating and petrochemical industries. Titanium alloys can substitute for nickel metal or nickel-base alloys in corrosive chemical environments. Lithium-ion batteries may be used instead of nickel metal hydride batteries in certain applications.

Note(s): In the US, the leading uses for primary nickel are stainless and alloy steels, nonferrous alloys and superalloys, electroplating, and other uses including catalysts and chemicals. Domestic production of stainless steel was estimated to have decreased by approximately 10% in 2019. Consumption of nickel used in alloys for jet turbine engines continued to increase.

Description: Columbium and niobium are synonymous names for the chemical element with atomic number 41; columbium was the name given in 1801, and niobium (Nb) was the name officially designated by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry in 1950. The US does not have a niobium mining industry because identified resources are low grade. Brazil and Canada are the major producers of niobium mineral concentrates.

Uses: alloying element in steels, stainless steels, superalloys (nickel, cobalt, and iron-based); jet engine components; gas turbines; heat resistant and combustion equipment; tool bits and cutting tools

US Imports: 11,000 mt (2019 est.). The US is 100% import reliant for its niobium needs.

US Import Sources (2015–18): Niobium ore and concentrate: Rwanda, 39%; Brazil, 19%; Australia, 16%; Congo (Kinshasa), 10%; and other, 16%. Niobium oxide: Brazil, 48%; Russia, 25%; Thailand, 10%; Estonia, 9%; and other, 8%. Ferroniobium and niobium metal: Brazil, 70%; Canada, 26%; Germany, 2%; and other, 2%. Total imports: Brazil, 67%; Canada, 23%; Russia, 3%; Germany, 2%; and other, 5%. Of the US niobium material imports, 75% was ferroniobium, 14% was niobium metal, 10% was niobium oxide, and 1% was niobium ores and concentrates.

World Resources: Brazil continues to be the world’s leading niobium producer with 88% of global production, followed by Canada with 10%. World resources of niobium are more than adequate to supply projected needs. Most of the world’s identified resources of niobium fall outside the US. The United States has approximately 1,400,000 tons of niobium in identified resources, most of which were considered uneconomical at 2019 prices for niobium.

Substitutes: The following materials can be substituted for niobium, but a performance loss or higher cost may ensue: molybdenum and vanadium, as alloying elements in high-strength low-alloy steels; tantalum and titanium, as alloying elements in stainless- and high-strength steels; and ceramics, molybdenum, tantalum, and tungsten in high temperature applications.

Description: Rhenium is a silvery-gray, heavy, transition metal. With an estimated average concentration of 1 part per billion (ppb), rhenium is one of the rarest elements in the earth's crust. Rhenium has the third-highest melting point and second-highest boiling point of any element. Rhenium resembles manganese and technetium chemically and is mainly obtained as a by-product of the extraction and refinement of molybdenum and copper ores.

Uses: superalloys used in high-temperature turbine engine components; petroleum-reforming catalysts

US Imports: 39 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Ammonium perrhenate: Kazakhstan, 29%; Canada, 20%; Germany, 14%; China, 8%; and other, 29%. Rhenium metal powder: Chile, 83%; Germany, 7%; Belgium, 3%; Poland, 3%; and other, 4%. Total: Chile, 62%; Germany, 8%; Kazakhstan, 8%; Canada, 7%; and other, 15%.

World Resources: Most rhenium occurs with molybdenum in porphyry copper deposits. Identified US resources are estimated to be about 5 million kilograms, and the identified resources of the rest of the world are approximately 6 million kilograms. Rhenium also is associated with copper minerals in sedimentary deposits in Armenia, Kazakhstan, Poland, Russia, and Uzbekistan, where ore is processed for copper recovery and the rhenium-bearing residues are recovered at copper smelters.

Substitutes: Substitutes for rhenium in platinum-rhenium catalysts are being evaluated continually. Iridium and tin have achieved commercial success in one such application. Other metals being evaluated for catalytic use include gallium, germanium, indium, selenium, silicon, tungsten, and vanadium. The use of these and other metals in bimetallic catalysts might decrease rhenium’s share of the existing catalyst market; however, this would likely be offset by rhenium-bearing catalysts being considered for use in several proposed gas-to-liquid projects. Materials that can substitute for rhenium in various end uses are as follows: cobalt and tungsten for coatings on copper x-ray targets, rhodium and rhodium-iridium for high-temperature thermocouples, tungsten and platinum-ruthenium for coatings on electrical contacts, and tungsten and tantalum for electron emitters.

Description: Rubidium is a soft, ductile, silvery-white metal that melts at 39.3 °C. Naturally occurring rubidium is slightly radioactive. Rubidium is an extremely reactive metal - it ignites spontaneously in the presence of air and decomposes water explosively, igniting the liberated hydrogen.

Uses: Rubidium is used interchangeably or together with cesium in many uses; its principal application is in specialty glasses used in fiber optic telecommunication systems; Rubidium’s photoemissive properties have led to its use in night-vision devices, photoelectric cells, and photomultiplier tubes; it has several uses in medical science, such as in positron emission tomographic (PET) imaging, the treatment of epilepsy, and the ultracentrifugal separation of nucleic acids and viruses.

US imports: US salient statistics, such as consumption, exports, and imports, are not available. Some concentrate was imported to the US for further processing. Industry information during the past decade suggests a domestic consumption rate of approximately 2,000 kilograms per year. The US was 100% import reliant for rubidium minerals.

Import sources: No reliable data has been available to determine the source of rubidium ore imported by the United States since 1988. Previously, Canada was thought to be the primary supplier of rubidium ore.

World Resources: Although rubidium is more abundant in the earth’s crust than copper, lead, or zinc, it forms no minerals of its own, and is, or has been, produced in small quantities as a byproduct of the processing of cesium and lithium ores taken from a few small deposits in Canada, Namibia, and Zambia.

Substitutes: Cesium and rubidium can be used interchangeably in many applications because they have similar physical properties and atomic radii.

Description: Strontium is a silvery-white metal, found in nature in two minerals, celestite (strontium sulfate) and strontianite (strontium carbonate).

Uses: alloys; pyrotechnics; ceramics and glasses; electrolytic production of zinc; tracer ammunition

US Imports: celestite – 11,000 mt; strontium compounds – 6,300 mt (2019 est.). The US is 100% import reliant for its strontium needs.

Import Sources (2015–18): Celestite: Mexico, 100%. Strontium compounds: Mexico, 53%; Germany, 37%; China, 7%; and other, 3%. Total imports: Mexico, 87%; Germany, 10%; China, 2%; and other, 1%.

World Resources: World resources of strontium are thought to exceed 1 billion tons. All of the celestite is imported from Mexico and is thought to be used exclusively as an additive in drilling fluids for oil and natural gas exploration and production. For these applications, celestite is ground but undergoes no chemical processing. Outside the US, celestite is the raw material used for production of strontium compounds.

Substitutes: Barium can be substituted for strontium in ferrite ceramic magnets; however, the resulting barium composite will have reduced maximum operating temperature when compared with that of strontium composites. Substituting for strontium in pyrotechnics is hindered by difficulty in obtaining the desired brilliance and visibility imparted by strontium and its compounds.

Description: Tantalum is a metallic element that is ductile, easily fabricated, highly resistant to corrosion by acids, and a good conductor of heat and electricity with a high melting point. The major use for tantalum, as tantalum metal powder, is in the production of electronic components, mainly tantalum capacitors. Major end uses for tantalum capacitors include portable telephones, pagers, personal computers, and automotive electronics. Alloyed with other metals, tantalum is also used in making carbide tools for metalworking equipment and in the production of superalloys for jet engine components.

Uses: chemical processing equipment; heat exchangers; anti-lock brake systems; high temperature aerospace engine parts; night vision goggles; global positioning systems; missile systems

US Imports: 1,300 mt (2019 est.). The US is 100% import reliant for its tantalum needs.

Import Sources (2015–18): Tantalum minerals: Rwanda, 39%; Brazil, 20%; Australia, 17%; Congo (Kinshasa), 10%; and other, 14%. Tantalum metal: China, 39%; Germany, 19%; Kazakhstan, 14%; Thailand, 12%; and other, 16%. Tantalum waste and scrap: Mexico, 14%; Austria, 11%; Japan, 10%; Germany, 9%; and other, 56%.

World Resources: Identified resources of tantalum, most of which are in Australia, Brazil, and Canada, are considered adequate to meet projected needs. The US has about 55,000 tons of tantalum resources in identified deposits, most of which are considered uneconomic at 2019 prices.

Substitutes: The following materials can be substituted for tantalum, but usually with less effectiveness: niobium in carbides; aluminum and ceramics in electronic capacitors; glass, niobium, platinum, titanium, and zirconium in corrosion-resistant applications; and hafnium, iridium, molybdenum, niobium, rhenium, and tungsten in high-temperature applications.

Description: Tin is a silvery-white metallic element. The most important ore mineral of tin, cassiterite (tin dioxide), is formed in high-temperature veins that are usually related to igneous rocks such as granites and rhyolites. It is often found in association with tungsten minerals.

Uses: bearings; containers; solder; bronze; chemicals; LCD TVs, touch screens and portable electronics

US Imports: refined – 35,000 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Indonesia, 25%; Malaysia, 24%; Peru, 20%; Bolivia, 18%; and other, 13%.

World Resources: World resources, principally in western Africa, southeastern Asia, Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Indonesia, and Russia, are extensive and, if developed, could sustain recent annual production rates well into the future.

Substitutes: Aluminum, glass, paper, plastic, or tin-free steel substitute for tin content in cans and containers. Other materials that substitute for tin are epoxy resins for solder; aluminum alloys, alternative copper-base alloys, and plastics for bronze; plastics for bearing metals that contain tin; and compounds of lead and sodium for some tin chemicals.

Description: Titanium is a hard, silvery-white metallic element. As a metal, titanium is well known for corrosion resistance and for its high strength-to-weight ratio. When titanium metal is produced from ore, it is first produced in sponge form before it is melted into metal shapes. Titanium dioxide pigment is a white pigment characterized by its purity, refractive index, particle size, and surface properties. Titanium metal and pigment are produced from the minerals ilmenite, leucoxene, and rutile.

Uses: landing gear, springs, rotors (helicopter), fittings, and attachments; structural components for airplanes, satellites, and spacecraft; gas turbine engines; chemical processing

US Imports: 27,000 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Sponge metal: Japan, 86%; Kazakhstan, 8%; Ukraine, 4%; China, 1%; and Russia, 1%. Titanium dioxide pigment: Canada, 35%; China, 25%; Germany, 9%; Mexico, 4%; and other, 27%.

World Resources: Ilmenite accounts for about 89% of the world’s consumption of titanium minerals. World resources of anatase, ilmenite, and rutile total more than 2 billion tons.

Substitutes: Few materials possess titanium metal’s strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance. In high-strength applications, titanium competes with aluminum, composites, intermetallics, steel, and superalloys. Aluminum, nickel, specialty steels, and zirconium alloys may be substituted for titanium for applications that require corrosion resistance. Ground calcium carbonate, precipitated calcium carbonate, kaolin, and talc compete with titanium dioxide as a white pigment.

Description: Tungsten is a gray-white metallic element; it has the highest melting temperature of all elements except carbon and is one of the heaviest elements. Tungsten is produced from the mineral ores scheelite (calcium tungstate) and wolframite (iron-manganese tungstate). The ore is concentrated and then usually produced into the intermediate product ammonium paratungstate (APT) before being processed into metallic applications. The US does not have any operating tungsten mines.

Uses: steels; wear-resistant alloys; component in nickel superalloys for high-temperature sections of jet engines; armor penetrating projectiles; aircraft weights and counterweights; small arms ammunition

US Imports: 13,800 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Tungsten contained in ores and concentrates, intermediate and primary products, wrought and unwrought tungsten, and waste and scrap: China, 31%; Bolivia, 10%; Germany, 9%; Spain, 6%; and other, 44%.

World Resources: World tungsten resources are geographically widespread. China ranks first in the world in terms of tungsten resources and reserves and has some of the largest deposits. Canada, Kazakhstan, Russia, and the US also have significant tungsten resources.

Substitutes: Potential substitutes for cemented tungsten carbides include cemented carbides based on molybdenum carbide and titanium carbide, ceramics, ceramic-metallic composites (cermets), and tool steels. Potential substitutes for other applications are as follows: molybdenum for certain tungsten mill products; molybdenum steels for tungsten steels; lighting based on carbon nanotube filaments, induction technology, and light-emitting diodes for lighting based on tungsten electrodes or filaments; depleted uranium or lead for tungsten or tungsten alloys in applications requiring high-density or the ability to shield radiation; and depleted uranium alloys or hardened steel for cemented tungsten carbides or tungsten alloys in armor-piercing projectiles.

Description: Uranium is a common metal found in rocks all over the world. Uranium occurs in combination with small amounts of other elements.

Uses: Uranium is the fuel most widely used by nuclear power plants for nuclear fission. In nuclear fission, energy is released when atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms. Nuclear power plants use the heat from nuclear fission to produce electricity.

US Imports: 18,824 mt (2018)

Import Sources (2018): Canada, 24%; Australia, 18%; Russia, 13%; Kazakhstan, 20%; Uzbekistan, 6%; Hungary, Malawi, Namibia, Niger, South Africa, Ukraine, and unknown, 3%

World Resources: Economically recoverable uranium deposits have been discovered primarily in the western US, Australia, Canada, Central Asia, Africa, and South America. About 10% of the uranium delivered to US reactors in 2018 was produced in the US and 90% came from other countries.

Substitutes: None

Description: Vanadium is a soft, silver-gray metallic element. There is no single mineral ore from which vanadium is recovered. However, it is found as a trace element in a several types of rock and is a by-product of other mining operations. Vanadinite (lead chlorovanadate) is mineral that contains vanadium.

Uses: steel; Titanium-Aluminum-Vanadium alloys in jet engines and high-speed aircraft; cladding titanium to steel; energy storage

US Imports: Ferrovanadium 2,500 mt; Vanadium pentoxide 4,000 mt (2019 est.) The US is 100% import reliant for its vanadium needs.

Import Sources (2015–18): Ferrovanadium: Austria, 48%; Canada, 22%; Russia, 14%; Republic of Korea, 11%; and other, 5%. Vanadium pentoxide: South Africa, 44%; Brazil, 29%; China, 11%; Taiwan, 6%; and other, 10%.

World Resources: World resources of vanadium exceed 63 million tons. Vanadium occurs in deposits of phosphate rock, titaniferous magnetite, and uraniferous sandstone and siltstone, in which it constitutes less than 2% of the host rock. Significant quantities are also present in bauxite and carboniferous materials, such as coal, crude oil, oil shale, and tar sands. Because vanadium is typically recovered as a byproduct or coproduct, demonstrated world resources of the element are not fully indicative of available supplies.

Substitutes: Steels containing various combinations of other alloying elements can be substituted for steels containing vanadium. Certain metals, such as manganese, molybdenum, niobium (columbium), titanium, and tungsten, are to some degree interchangeable with vanadium as alloying elements in steel. Platinum and nickel can replace vanadium compounds as catalysts in some chemical processes. Currently, no acceptable substitute for vanadium is available for use in aerospace titanium alloys.

Description: Zinc is a blue-gray, metallic element; it is recovered from a number of different zinc minerals, the most significant of which is sphalerite (zinc sulfide). Other minerals, such as smithsonite (zinc carbonate) and zincite (zinc oxide), are also zinc ores.

Uses: galvanized steel; bronze and brass; solder; batteries; solar cells

US Imports: Ore and refined metal – 830,000 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Ore and concentrate: Peru, 98%; and other, 2%. Refined metal: Canada, 64%; Mexico, 13%; Australia, 7%; Peru, 7%; and other, 9%.

World Resources: Identified zinc resources of the world are about 1.9 billion tons. Global zinc mine production in 2019 was estimated to be 13 million tons, a 4% increase from that of 2018. Notable zinc mine production increases took place in Australia, China, and South Africa.

Substitutes: Aluminum and plastics substitute for galvanized sheet in automobiles; aluminum alloys, cadmium, paint, and plastic coatings replace zinc coatings in other applications. Aluminum- and magnesium-base alloys are major competitors for zinc-base die-casting alloys. Many elements are substitutes for zinc in chemical, electronic, and pigment uses.

Description: Zircon is a zirconium silicate mineral that is usually 98% zirconium and 2% hafnium and is the primary source of both materials. Zirconium is a metallic element used in a number of industrial applications because it is so resistant to corrosion and high temperatures.

Uses: space vehicles and parts; abrasives; alloys for naval applications; metallurgical furnaces; ceramic knives; artificial joints and limbs

US Imports: 26,520 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Zirconium ores and concentrates: South Africa, 53%; Senegal, 28%; Australia, 15%; Russia, 2%; and other, 2%.

World Resources: Resources of zircon in the US included about 14 million tons associated with titanium resources in heavy-mineral-sand deposits. Phosphate rock and sand and gravel deposits could potentially yield substantial amounts of zircon as a byproduct.

Substitutes: Chromite and olivine can be used instead of zircon for some foundry applications. Dolomite and spinel refractories can also substitute for zircon in certain high-temperature applications.

Description: Iridium, the second densest element, is silvery-white that resembles platinum but with a slightly yellow tint. It is hard and brittle with a high boiling point that makes it difficult to use or work. Iridium is the most corrosion-resistant metal; it has handling temperatures as high as 2,000ºC, but in a powder or dust form it is highly reactive and flammable.

Uses: spark plug tips; backlit LED screens and organic LEDS; platinum hardening agent; iridium alloys used in aircraft engines; guided missile systems; computers and radar screens; military semiconductors

US Imports: .91 mt (2019 est.)

Description: Palladium, like other platinum group metals (PGMs), is a rare, silvery-white metal found in the earth’s crust. When annealed, it is a soft, ductile, noble  metal that does not tarnish in air below 800ºC. The strength and hardness of palladium can be increased by cold-working. It has the lowest boiling point (2,963ºC) and is the least dense of all PGMs. Palladium has a unique ability to absorb hydrogen at up to 900 times its own volume.

Uses: electronic conductive connectors; automotive catalysts; multilayer ceramic capacitors; internal computer components; aerospace brazing and soldering

US Imports: 76 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): South Africa, 33%; Russia, 33%; Germany, 7%; Italy, 7%; and other, 20%.

World Resources: World resources of PGMs are estimated to total more than 100 million kilograms. The largest reserves are in the Bushveld Complex in South Africa.

Substitutes: For some industrial end uses, one PGM can substitute for another, but with losses in efficiency.

Description: Platinum, one of the rarest elements found in the Earth’s crust, has a silvery-white color that never tarnishes. It is a dense, ductile metal that is malleable. Platinum, a noble metal, is corrosion-resistant with high-temperature stability and is non-oxidizable with stable electrical properties. It is part of a group of metals known as the platinum group metals (PGMs).

Uses: LCD/flat panel displays; catalysts (automotive, bulk chemical, petroleum refining); high-temperature, corrosion-resistant alloy; aircraft turbine blades; coatings; engine seals and gaskets

US Imports: 38 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): South Africa, 46%; Germany, 16%; Italy, 7%; Russia, 6%; and other, 25%.

World Resources: World resources of PGMs are estimated to total more than 100 million kilograms. The largest reserves are in the Bushveld Complex in South Africa.

Substitutes: Palladium has been substituted for platinum in most gasoline-engine catalytic converters because of the historically lower price for palladium relative to that of platinum. About 25% of palladium can routinely be substituted for platinum in diesel catalytic converters; the proportion can be as much as 50% in some applications.

Note(s): Platinum is used for investments as an exchange-traded product and in individual holdings of physical bars and coins.

Description: A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. The metal is found in the earth's crust in the pure, free elemental form ("native silver"), as an alloy with gold and other metals, and in minerals such as argentite and chlorargyrite. The physical properties of silver include high ductility, electrical conductivity, malleability, and reflectivity.

Uses: antimicrobial bandages; clothing; pharmaceuticals; plastics; batteries; bearings; brazing and soldering; catalytic converters in automobiles; electroplating; inks; mirrors; photovoltaic solar cells; water purification; wood treatment

US Imports: 4,700 mt (2019 est.)

Import Sources (2015–18): Mexico, 48%; Canada, 29%; Peru, 5%; Poland, 4%; and other, 14%.

World Resources: Although silver was a principal product at several mines, silver was primarily obtained as a byproduct from lead-zinc mines, copper mines, and gold mines, in descending order of production. The polymetallic ore deposits from which silver was recovered account for more than two-thirds of US and world resources of silver. Most recent silver discoveries have been associated with gold occurrences; however, copper and lead-zinc occurrences that contain byproduct silver will continue to account for a significant share of reserves and resources in the future. World silver mine production decreased in 2017 to 25,000 tons, principally as a result of decreased production from mines in Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Chile, Peru, and the US.

Substitutes: Digital imaging, film with reduced silver content, silverless black-and-white film, and xerography substitute for traditional photographic applications for silver. Surgical pins and plates may be made with stainless steel, tantalum, and titanium in place of silver. Stainless steel may be substituted for silver flatware. Non-silver batteries may replace silver batteries in some applications. Aluminum and rhodium may be used to replace silver that was traditionally used in mirrors and other reflecting surfaces. Silver may be used to replace more costly metals in catalytic converters for off-road vehicles.

Note(s): In 2019, the estimated domestic uses for silver were electrical and electronics, 30%; jewelry and silverware, 26%; coins and medals, 12%; photography, 3%; and other, 29%.